Timeline of Indian history
The Indian subcontinent has been home to complex civilizations for more than 5,000 years.
Ancient India: 3300 - 500 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization; "Aryan" Invasion; Vedic Civilization; "Rig-Veda" Composed; Mahajanapadas form in northern India; Development of caste system; "Upanishads" composed; Prince Siddharta Gautama becomes the Buddha; Prince Mahavira founds Jainism
Mauryan Empire and Development of Castes: 327 BCE - 200 CE
Alexander the Great invades Indus Valley; Mauryan Empire; "Ramayana" composed; Ashoka the Great rules Mauryan Empire; Indo-Scythian Empire; "Mahabharata" composed; Indo-Greek Kingdom; "Bhagavata Gita" composed; Indo-Persian kingdoms; "Laws of Manu" defines 4 castes
Gupta Empire and Fragmentation: 280 - 750 CE
Gupta Empire; Pallava Dynasty; Gupta Empire falls and India fragments; Thanesar Kingdom founded by Harsha Vardhana in north India and Nepal; Chalukyan Empire conquers central India; Chalukyas defeat Harsha Vardhana at Battle of Malwa; Pratihara Dynasty in N India
Chola Empire and Medieval India: 753 - 1190 CE
Rashtrakuta Dynasty controls south and central India, expands northward; Chola Empire breaks off from Pallavas; Pratihara Empire at its height; Chola conquers all of south India; Mahmud of Ghazni conquers much of Punjab; Raja Raja of Chola builds Brihadeshvara Temple; Mahmud of Ghazni sacks Gurjara-Pratihara capital; Cholas expand into Southeast Asia; Palas Empire peaks under King Mahipala; Chalukya Empire breaks into three kingdoms
Muslim Rule in India: 1206 - 1490 CE
Delhi Sultanate founded; Mongols win Battle of Indus, bring down Khwarezmid Empire; Chola Dynasty falls; Khilji Dynasty takes over Delhi Sultanate; Battle of Jalandhar - Khilji general defeats Mongols; Turkic ruler Muhammad bin Tughlaq takes Delhi Sultanate; Vijayanagara Empire founded in southern India; Bahmani Kingdom rules Deccan Plateau; Vijayanagara Empire conquers Muslim sultanate of Madura; Timur (Tamerlane) sacks Delhi; Sikhism founded
Mughal Empire and British East India Co.: 1526 - 1769
First Battle of Panipat - Babur and Mughals defeat Delhi Sultanate; Turkic Mughal Empire rules north and central India; Deccan sultanates become independent with breakup of Bahmani Kingdom; Akbar the Great ascends to throne; British East India Co. founded; Shah Jihan crowned Mughal Emperor; Taj Mahal built to honor Mumtaz Mahal; Shah Jihan deposed by son; Battle of Plassey, British East India Co. begins political control of India; Bengali Famine kills some 10 million people
British Raj in India: 1799 - 1943
British defeat and kill Tippu Sultan; Sikh Empire founded in Punjab; British Raj in India; British outlaw sati; Queen Victoria named Empress of India; Indian National Congress formed; Muslim League founded; Mohandas Gandhi leads anti-British campaign; Gandhi's salt protest and March to the Sea; "Quit India" movement
Partition of India and Independence: 1947 - 1977
Independence and the Partition of India; Mohandas Gandhi assassinated; First Indo-Pakistani War; Indo-Chinese border war; Prime Minister Nehru dies; Second Indo-Pakistani War; Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister; Third Indo-Pakistani War and creation of Bangladesh; First Indian nuclear test; Indira Gandhi's party loses elections
The Turbulent Late 20th Century: 1980 - 1999
Indira Gandhi returns to power; Indian troops attack Sikh Golden Temple; Indira Gandhi assassinated by Sikh bodyguards; Union Carbide gas leak at Bhopal kills thousands; Indian troops intervene in Sri Lankan civil war; India withdraws from Sri Lanka; Rajiv Gandhi assassinated by Tamil Tiger suicide bomber; Indian Nation Congress loses elections; Indian Prime Minister travels to Pakistan to sign peace declaration; Renewed Indo-Pakistani fighting in Kashmir
India in the 21st Century: 2001 - 2008
Gujarat earthquakes kill 30,000+; India launches first large orbital satellites; Sectarian violence kills 59 Hindu pilgrims and then 1,000+ Muslims; India and Pakistan declare Kashmir ceasefire; Mahmohan Singh becomes prime minister of India; Thousands of Indians die in Southeast Asian tsunami; Pratibha Patil becomes India's first female president; Mumbai terrorist attack by radicals
First civilizations of India
3300-1300 BCE - Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley civilization is one of the oldest societies we know of, including over 2600 known archaeological sites located along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers in Pakistan and India, an area of some 1.6 million square kilometers. The largest known Harappan site is Ganweriwala, located on the bank of the Sarasvati river. They lived in planned communities of houses built of mud brick, burnt brick, and chiseled stone. Mature Harappan society had three classes, including a religious elite, a trading class class and the poor workers. Art of the Harappan includes bronze figures of people, animals, birds and toys cast with the lost wax method. Terracotta figurines are rarer, but are known from some sites, as is shell, bone, semiprecious and clay jewelry. The earliest pottery made in the Harappan region was built beginning about 6000 BC, and included storage jars, perforated cylindrical towers and footed dishes. The copper/bronze industry flourished at sites such as Harappa and Lothal, and copper casting and hammering were used. Shell and bead making industry was very important, particularly at sites such as Chanhu-daro where mass production of beads and seals is in evidence. Trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Persian gulf is in evidence between 2700-1900 BC.
c. 1700 BCE? - Possible "Aryan Invasion" from North
One of the most interesting puzzles in archaeology, and one that hasn't been completely solved yet, concerns the story of the supposed Aryan invasion of the Indian subcontinent. The Aryans were a tribe of Indo-European-speaking, horse-riding nomads living in the arid steppes of Eurasia. Sometime around 1700 BC, the Aryans invaded the ancient urban civilizations of the Indus Valley, and forced it further South (Dravidian colonization of Southern India). Some 1,200 years after the supposed invasion, the descendants of the Aryans wrote the classic Vedic manuscripts. But there are no references to an invasion in the Vedic manuscripts; and the Sanskrit word "Aryas" means "noble", not a superior cultural group. Secondly, recent archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus civilization was shut down by droughts combined with a devasting flood, not a violent confrontation. Recent archaeological evidence also shows that many of the so-called "Indus River" valley peoples lived in the Sarasvati River, which is mentioned in the Vedic manuscripts as a homeland. Up till now, there is no biological or archaeological evidence of a massive invasion of people of a different race.
The most recent studies concerning the Aryan/Dravidian myth include language studies, which have attempted to decipher and thereby discover the origins of the Indus script, and the Vedic manuscripts, to determine the origins of the Sanskrit in which it was written.
Born from a colonial mentality, corrupted by a Nazi propaganda machine, the Aryan invasion theory is finally undergoing radical reassessment by south Asian archaeologists and their colleagues, using the Vedic documents themselves, additional linguistic studies, and physical evidence revealed through archaeological excavations. The Indus valley cultural history is an ancient and complex one. Only time will teach us what role if any an Indo-European invasion took in the history; but it seems clear that a collapse of the Indus civilization did not occur.
The Indus Valley civilization is one of the oldest societies we know of, including over 2600 known archaeological sites located along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers in Pakistan and India, an area of some 1.6 million square kilometers. The largest known Harappan site is Ganweriwala, located on the bank of the Sarasvati river. They lived in planned communities of houses built of mud brick, burnt brick, and chiseled stone. Mature Harappan society had three classes, including a religious elite, a trading class class and the poor workers. Art of the Harappan includes bronze figures of people, animals, birds and toys cast with the lost wax method. Terracotta figurines are rarer, but are known from some sites, as is shell, bone, semiprecious and clay jewelry. The earliest pottery made in the Harappan region was built beginning about 6000 BC, and included storage jars, perforated cylindrical towers and footed dishes. The copper/bronze industry flourished at sites such as Harappa and Lothal, and copper casting and hammering were used. Shell and bead making industry was very important, particularly at sites such as Chanhu-daro where mass production of beads and seals is in evidence. Trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Persian gulf is in evidence between 2700-1900 BC.
c. 1700 BCE? - Possible "Aryan Invasion" from North
One of the most interesting puzzles in archaeology, and one that hasn't been completely solved yet, concerns the story of the supposed Aryan invasion of the Indian subcontinent. The Aryans were a tribe of Indo-European-speaking, horse-riding nomads living in the arid steppes of Eurasia. Sometime around 1700 BC, the Aryans invaded the ancient urban civilizations of the Indus Valley, and forced it further South (Dravidian colonization of Southern India). Some 1,200 years after the supposed invasion, the descendants of the Aryans wrote the classic Vedic manuscripts. But there are no references to an invasion in the Vedic manuscripts; and the Sanskrit word "Aryas" means "noble", not a superior cultural group. Secondly, recent archaeological evidence suggests that the Indus civilization was shut down by droughts combined with a devasting flood, not a violent confrontation. Recent archaeological evidence also shows that many of the so-called "Indus River" valley peoples lived in the Sarasvati River, which is mentioned in the Vedic manuscripts as a homeland. Up till now, there is no biological or archaeological evidence of a massive invasion of people of a different race.
The most recent studies concerning the Aryan/Dravidian myth include language studies, which have attempted to decipher and thereby discover the origins of the Indus script, and the Vedic manuscripts, to determine the origins of the Sanskrit in which it was written.
Born from a colonial mentality, corrupted by a Nazi propaganda machine, the Aryan invasion theory is finally undergoing radical reassessment by south Asian archaeologists and their colleagues, using the Vedic documents themselves, additional linguistic studies, and physical evidence revealed through archaeological excavations. The Indus valley cultural history is an ancient and complex one. Only time will teach us what role if any an Indo-European invasion took in the history; but it seems clear that a collapse of the Indus civilization did not occur.
Litterature in Ancient India
c. 1000 BCE - "Rig Veda" Composed
The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization, and the most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, and contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of our life. Vedic literature with its philosophical maxims has stood the test of time and is the highest religious authority for all sections of Hindus in particular and for mankind in general.
“Veda” means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the language of the gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas regulate the social, legal, domestic and religious customs of the Hindus to the present day. All the obligatory duties of the Hindus at birth, marriage and death owe their allegiance to the Vedic ritual. They draw forth the thought of successive generation of thinkers, and so contain different strata of thought.
There are 4 Vedas: The Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, the Rig Veda being the main one. Each Veda consists of four parts – the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies).
c. 600 BCE - Sanskrit-language "Upanishads" Composed
The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. They are a collection of writings from original oral transmissions. It is here that we find all the fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism — the concepts of 'karma' (action), 'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman' (Absolute Almighty). They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization, yoga and meditation. The Upanishads are summits of thought on mankind and the universe, designed to push human ideas to their very limit and beyond. They give us both spiritual vision and philosophical argument, and it is by a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth.
c. 300 BCE - Epic "Ramayana" is Composed
The Ramayana is undoubtedly the most popular and timeless Indian epic read and loved by all. The term 'Ramayana', literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of human values. As a literary work, it combines the inner bliss of Vedic literature with the outer richness of delightfully profound story telling.
The Vedas are considered the earliest literary record of Indo-Aryan civilization, and the most sacred books of India. They are the original scriptures of Hindu teachings, and contain spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of our life. Vedic literature with its philosophical maxims has stood the test of time and is the highest religious authority for all sections of Hindus in particular and for mankind in general.
“Veda” means wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the language of the gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas regulate the social, legal, domestic and religious customs of the Hindus to the present day. All the obligatory duties of the Hindus at birth, marriage and death owe their allegiance to the Vedic ritual. They draw forth the thought of successive generation of thinkers, and so contain different strata of thought.
There are 4 Vedas: The Rig-Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, the Rig Veda being the main one. Each Veda consists of four parts – the Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the Upanishads (philosophies).
c. 600 BCE - Sanskrit-language "Upanishads" Composed
The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. They are a collection of writings from original oral transmissions. It is here that we find all the fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism — the concepts of 'karma' (action), 'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman' (Absolute Almighty). They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization, yoga and meditation. The Upanishads are summits of thought on mankind and the universe, designed to push human ideas to their very limit and beyond. They give us both spiritual vision and philosophical argument, and it is by a strictly personal effort that one can reach the truth.
c. 300 BCE - Epic "Ramayana" is Composed
The Ramayana is undoubtedly the most popular and timeless Indian epic read and loved by all. The term 'Ramayana', literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of human values. As a literary work, it combines the inner bliss of Vedic literature with the outer richness of delightfully profound story telling.
Siddharta Gautama & the Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama's Early Life
Siddhartha Gautama was born about 583 BCE, in or near what is now Nepal. His father, King Suddhodana, was leader of a large clan called the Shakya. His mother, Queen Maya, died shortly after his birth. He was raised in great luxury and shielded from knowledge of religion and human suffering. The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces.
The Four Passing Sights
One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer to take him on a series of rides through the countryside. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an aged man, then a sick man, and then a corpse. The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince.
The Renunciation
The Prince realized then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed his prince's clothes for a beggar's robe. Then he began his quest for enlightenment. Siddhartha began by seeking out renowned teachers, who taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. But after he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. So he and five disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves, through physical discipline. Yet Siddhartha was still unsatisfied. It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped pleasure's opposite--pain and self-mortification. Now Siddhartha considered a Middle Way between those two extremes.
The Enlightenment of the Buddha
Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), known ever after as the Bodhi Tree, and settled into meditation.
The work of Siddhartha's mind came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, a demon whose name means "destruction' and who represents the passions that snare and delude us. Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha, who sat still and untouched. Mara's most beautiful daughter tried to seduce Siddhartha, but this effort also failed. Finally, Mara claimed the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him. Mara's spiritual accomplishments were greater than Siddhartha's, the demon said. Mara's monstrous soldiers cried out together, "I am his witness!" Mara challenged Siddhartha--who will speak for you? Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself roared, "I bear you witness!" Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha.
The Teacher
At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach, because what he had realized could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and the Great Reality could be directly experienced. Listeners would surely misunderstand everything he said. But compassion persuaded him to make the attempt. After his enlightenment, he went to Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. There he he preached his first sermon. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realize enlightenment for themselves.
Siddhartha Gautama was born about 583 BCE, in or near what is now Nepal. His father, King Suddhodana, was leader of a large clan called the Shakya. His mother, Queen Maya, died shortly after his birth. He was raised in great luxury and shielded from knowledge of religion and human suffering. The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces.
The Four Passing Sights
One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer to take him on a series of rides through the countryside. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an aged man, then a sick man, and then a corpse. The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince.
The Renunciation
The Prince realized then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed his prince's clothes for a beggar's robe. Then he began his quest for enlightenment. Siddhartha began by seeking out renowned teachers, who taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. But after he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. So he and five disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves, through physical discipline. Yet Siddhartha was still unsatisfied. It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped pleasure's opposite--pain and self-mortification. Now Siddhartha considered a Middle Way between those two extremes.
The Enlightenment of the Buddha
Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), known ever after as the Bodhi Tree, and settled into meditation.
The work of Siddhartha's mind came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, a demon whose name means "destruction' and who represents the passions that snare and delude us. Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha, who sat still and untouched. Mara's most beautiful daughter tried to seduce Siddhartha, but this effort also failed. Finally, Mara claimed the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him. Mara's spiritual accomplishments were greater than Siddhartha's, the demon said. Mara's monstrous soldiers cried out together, "I am his witness!" Mara challenged Siddhartha--who will speak for you? Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself roared, "I bear you witness!" Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha.
The Teacher
At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach, because what he had realized could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and the Great Reality could be directly experienced. Listeners would surely misunderstand everything he said. But compassion persuaded him to make the attempt. After his enlightenment, he went to Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. There he he preached his first sermon. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realize enlightenment for themselves.
Chandragupta Maurya founds the Mauryan Empire
Facing stiff resistance all through what is now Pakistan, and hampered by the high Hindu-Kush Mountains, Alexander the Great’s army lost its will to conquer India at the Battle of Jhelum (or Hydaspes River). Although the Macedonians made it through the Khyber Pass and defeated Raja Puru (King Poros) near modern-day Bhera, Pakistan, the fighting was almost too much for Alexander's troops. Worst of all, Raja Puru's army included 30 war elephants, who spooked the Macedonian cavalry's horses (and probably the men, as well). When the victorious Macedonians heard that their next target - the Nanda Empire - could muster 6,000 war elephants, the soldiers revolted. Alexander the Great would not conquer the far side of the Ganges.
Although the world's greatest tactician could not convince his troops to take on the Nanda Empire, five years after Alexander turned away, a 20-year-old Chandragupta Maurya would accomplish that feat, and go on to unite almost all of what is now India. The young Indian emperor would also take on Alexander's successors - and win.
Chandragupta Maurya's Birth and Ancestry:
Chandragupta Maurya was born sometime around 340 BCE, reportedly in Patna, now in the Bihar state of India. We know almost nothing about Chandragupta Maurya's childhood and youth before he took on the Nanda Empire. This supports the hypothesis that he was of humble origin, since nobody recorded anything about him until he founded the Mauryan Empire.
Overthrow of the Nanda:
From an early age, Chandragupta was brave and charismatic. The young man came to the attention of a famous Brahmin scholar, Chanakya, who bore a grudge against the Nanda. Chanakya began to groom Chandragupta to conquer and rule in the place of the Nanda Emperor; he helped the young man to raise an army, and taught him tactics through different Hindu sutras.
Chandragupta allied himself to the king of a mountain kingdom, perhaps the same Puru who had been defeated but spared by Alexander, and set out to conquer the Nanda. Initially, the upstart's army was rebuffed, but after a long series of battles Chandragupta's forces laid seige to the Nanda capital at Pataliputra. In 321 BCE, the capital fell, and 20-year-old Chandragupta Maurya started his own dynasty - the Mauryan Empire.
The Mauryan Empire:
Chandragupta's new empire, at the time of its founding, stretched from what is now Afghanistan in the west to Myanmar (Burma) in the west, and from Jammu/Kashmir in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south.
Conquest of Macedonian India:
When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, his generals divided up his empire into satrapies, so that each of them would have a territory to rule. By about 316, Chandragupta Maurya was able to defeat and incorporate all of the satraps in the mountains of Central Asia, extending his empire to the edge of what is now Iran, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Push into Seleucid Persia:
In 305 BCE, Chandragupta decided to expand his empire into eastern Persia. At the time, Persia was ruled by Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire, and a former general under Alexander. In the peace treaty that ended this war, Chandragupta got control of that land as well as the hand of one of Seleucus's daughters in marriage.
Conquering Southern India:
With as much territory as he could comfortably rule to the north and west, Chandragupta Maurya next turned his attention south. With an army of 400,000, according to Strabo, or 600,000, according to Pliny the Elder, Chandragupta conquered all of the Indian subcontinent except for Kalinga (now Orissa) on the east coast, and the Tamil kingdom at the farthest southern tip of the land-mass. By the end of his reign, Chandragupta Maurya had unified almost all of the Indian subcontinent under his rule. His grandson, Ashoka, would go on to add Kalinga and the Tamils to the empire, as well.
Although the world's greatest tactician could not convince his troops to take on the Nanda Empire, five years after Alexander turned away, a 20-year-old Chandragupta Maurya would accomplish that feat, and go on to unite almost all of what is now India. The young Indian emperor would also take on Alexander's successors - and win.
Chandragupta Maurya's Birth and Ancestry:
Chandragupta Maurya was born sometime around 340 BCE, reportedly in Patna, now in the Bihar state of India. We know almost nothing about Chandragupta Maurya's childhood and youth before he took on the Nanda Empire. This supports the hypothesis that he was of humble origin, since nobody recorded anything about him until he founded the Mauryan Empire.
Overthrow of the Nanda:
From an early age, Chandragupta was brave and charismatic. The young man came to the attention of a famous Brahmin scholar, Chanakya, who bore a grudge against the Nanda. Chanakya began to groom Chandragupta to conquer and rule in the place of the Nanda Emperor; he helped the young man to raise an army, and taught him tactics through different Hindu sutras.
Chandragupta allied himself to the king of a mountain kingdom, perhaps the same Puru who had been defeated but spared by Alexander, and set out to conquer the Nanda. Initially, the upstart's army was rebuffed, but after a long series of battles Chandragupta's forces laid seige to the Nanda capital at Pataliputra. In 321 BCE, the capital fell, and 20-year-old Chandragupta Maurya started his own dynasty - the Mauryan Empire.
The Mauryan Empire:
Chandragupta's new empire, at the time of its founding, stretched from what is now Afghanistan in the west to Myanmar (Burma) in the west, and from Jammu/Kashmir in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south.
Conquest of Macedonian India:
When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, his generals divided up his empire into satrapies, so that each of them would have a territory to rule. By about 316, Chandragupta Maurya was able to defeat and incorporate all of the satraps in the mountains of Central Asia, extending his empire to the edge of what is now Iran, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Push into Seleucid Persia:
In 305 BCE, Chandragupta decided to expand his empire into eastern Persia. At the time, Persia was ruled by Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire, and a former general under Alexander. In the peace treaty that ended this war, Chandragupta got control of that land as well as the hand of one of Seleucus's daughters in marriage.
Conquering Southern India:
With as much territory as he could comfortably rule to the north and west, Chandragupta Maurya next turned his attention south. With an army of 400,000, according to Strabo, or 600,000, according to Pliny the Elder, Chandragupta conquered all of the Indian subcontinent except for Kalinga (now Orissa) on the east coast, and the Tamil kingdom at the farthest southern tip of the land-mass. By the end of his reign, Chandragupta Maurya had unified almost all of the Indian subcontinent under his rule. His grandson, Ashoka, would go on to add Kalinga and the Tamils to the empire, as well.
Ashoka the Great
Ashoka's Early Life
In 304 BCE, the second emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, Bindusara, welcomed a son into the world. The boy's mother Dharma was only a commoner, and he had several older half-brothers. Ashoka grew up to be a bold, troublesome and cruel young man. He was extremely fond of hunting; according to Vedic legend, he even killed a lion using only a wooden stick. His older half-brothers feared Ashoka, and convinced his father to post him as a general to distant frontiers of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka proved a competent general, likely much to his brothers' dismay, putting down a rebellion in the Punjabi city of Taxshila. Aware that his brothers viewed him as a rival for the throne, Ashoka went into exile for two years in the neighboring country of Kalinga.
Bindusara recalled his son to Maurya after two years to help quell an uprising in Ujjain, the former capital of the Avanti Kingdom. Ashoka succeeded, but was injured in the fighting. Buddhist monks tended to the wounded prince in secret, so that his eldest brother, the heir-apparent Susima, would not learn of Ashoka's injuries. Their patient learned the basic tenets of Buddhism from them.
When Bindusara died in 275 BCE, a two-year-long war for the succession erupted between Ashoka and his half-brothers. The Vedic sources vary on how many of Ashoka's brothers died; one says that he killed them all, while another states that he killed several of them. In either case, Ashoka prevailed and became the third ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
Chandashok - Ashoka the Terrible
For the first eight years of his reign, Ashoka waged near-constant war. He had inherited a sizable empire, but he expanded it to include most of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the area from the current-day borders of Iran and Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh and the Burmese border in the east. Only the southern tip of India and Sri Lanka remained out of his reach, plus the kingdom of Kalinga on the northeast coast of India.
In 265, Ashoka attacked Kalinga. Although it was the homeland of his second wife, Kaurwaki, and the king of Kalinga had sheltered Ashoka before his accent to the throne, the Mauryan emperor gathered the largest invasion force in Indian history to that point and launched his assault. Kalinga fought back bravely, but in the end it was defeated and all of its cities sacked.Ashoka had led the invasion in person, and he went out into the capital city of the Kalingas the morning after his victory to survey the damage. The ruined houses and bloodied corpses sickened the emperor, and he underwent a religious epiphany. Although he had considered himself more or less Buddhist prior to that day, the carnage at Kalinga led Ashoka to devote himself to Buddhism. He vowed to practice ahimsa from that day forward.
Ashoka the Great
Ashoka wrote out a series of edicts, explaining his policies and aspirations for the empire, and urging others to follow his enlightened example. The Edicts of King Ashoka were carved onto pillars of stone 40 to 50 feet high, and set up all around the edges of the Mauryan Empire as well as in the heart of Ashoka's realm. Dozens of these pillars dot the landscapes of India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
In his edicts, Ashoka vows to care for his people like a father. He promises neighboring people that they need not fear him; he will use only persuasion, not violence, to win people over. Ashoka notes that he has made available shade and fruit trees for the people, as well as medical care for all people and animals. His concern for living things also appears in a ban on live sacrifices and sport hunting. Ashoka urges his people to follow a vegetarian diet, and bans the practice of burning forests or agricultural wastes that might harbor wild animals.
Ashoka also ruled with incredible accessibility. To that end, he went on frequent tours around his empire. Ashoka was very concerned with judicial matters. His attitude toward convicted criminals was quite merciful. He banned punishments such as torture and the death penalty. He urged pardons for the elderly, those with families to support, etc.
Finally, although Ashoka urged his people to practice Buddhist values, he fostered an atmosphere of respect for all religions. Within his empire people followed not only the relatively new Buddhist faith, but also Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Greek polytheism and many other belief systems. Ashoka served as an example of tolerance for his subjects, and his religious affairs officers encouraged the practice of any religion.
Ashoka's Legacy
After Ashoka's death, the Mauryan Empire continued to exist for 50 years, but it went into a gradual decline. The last Mauryan emperor was Brhadrata, who was assassinated in 185 BCE by one of his generals, Pusyamitra Sunga. Although his family did not rule for long after he was gone, Ashoka's principles and his examples lived on through the Vedas. He is now known the world over as one of the best rulers ever to have reigned.
In 304 BCE, the second emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, Bindusara, welcomed a son into the world. The boy's mother Dharma was only a commoner, and he had several older half-brothers. Ashoka grew up to be a bold, troublesome and cruel young man. He was extremely fond of hunting; according to Vedic legend, he even killed a lion using only a wooden stick. His older half-brothers feared Ashoka, and convinced his father to post him as a general to distant frontiers of the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka proved a competent general, likely much to his brothers' dismay, putting down a rebellion in the Punjabi city of Taxshila. Aware that his brothers viewed him as a rival for the throne, Ashoka went into exile for two years in the neighboring country of Kalinga.
Bindusara recalled his son to Maurya after two years to help quell an uprising in Ujjain, the former capital of the Avanti Kingdom. Ashoka succeeded, but was injured in the fighting. Buddhist monks tended to the wounded prince in secret, so that his eldest brother, the heir-apparent Susima, would not learn of Ashoka's injuries. Their patient learned the basic tenets of Buddhism from them.
When Bindusara died in 275 BCE, a two-year-long war for the succession erupted between Ashoka and his half-brothers. The Vedic sources vary on how many of Ashoka's brothers died; one says that he killed them all, while another states that he killed several of them. In either case, Ashoka prevailed and became the third ruler of the Mauryan Empire.
Chandashok - Ashoka the Terrible
For the first eight years of his reign, Ashoka waged near-constant war. He had inherited a sizable empire, but he expanded it to include most of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the area from the current-day borders of Iran and Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh and the Burmese border in the east. Only the southern tip of India and Sri Lanka remained out of his reach, plus the kingdom of Kalinga on the northeast coast of India.
In 265, Ashoka attacked Kalinga. Although it was the homeland of his second wife, Kaurwaki, and the king of Kalinga had sheltered Ashoka before his accent to the throne, the Mauryan emperor gathered the largest invasion force in Indian history to that point and launched his assault. Kalinga fought back bravely, but in the end it was defeated and all of its cities sacked.Ashoka had led the invasion in person, and he went out into the capital city of the Kalingas the morning after his victory to survey the damage. The ruined houses and bloodied corpses sickened the emperor, and he underwent a religious epiphany. Although he had considered himself more or less Buddhist prior to that day, the carnage at Kalinga led Ashoka to devote himself to Buddhism. He vowed to practice ahimsa from that day forward.
Ashoka the Great
Ashoka wrote out a series of edicts, explaining his policies and aspirations for the empire, and urging others to follow his enlightened example. The Edicts of King Ashoka were carved onto pillars of stone 40 to 50 feet high, and set up all around the edges of the Mauryan Empire as well as in the heart of Ashoka's realm. Dozens of these pillars dot the landscapes of India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
In his edicts, Ashoka vows to care for his people like a father. He promises neighboring people that they need not fear him; he will use only persuasion, not violence, to win people over. Ashoka notes that he has made available shade and fruit trees for the people, as well as medical care for all people and animals. His concern for living things also appears in a ban on live sacrifices and sport hunting. Ashoka urges his people to follow a vegetarian diet, and bans the practice of burning forests or agricultural wastes that might harbor wild animals.
Ashoka also ruled with incredible accessibility. To that end, he went on frequent tours around his empire. Ashoka was very concerned with judicial matters. His attitude toward convicted criminals was quite merciful. He banned punishments such as torture and the death penalty. He urged pardons for the elderly, those with families to support, etc.
Finally, although Ashoka urged his people to practice Buddhist values, he fostered an atmosphere of respect for all religions. Within his empire people followed not only the relatively new Buddhist faith, but also Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Greek polytheism and many other belief systems. Ashoka served as an example of tolerance for his subjects, and his religious affairs officers encouraged the practice of any religion.
Ashoka's Legacy
After Ashoka's death, the Mauryan Empire continued to exist for 50 years, but it went into a gradual decline. The last Mauryan emperor was Brhadrata, who was assassinated in 185 BCE by one of his generals, Pusyamitra Sunga. Although his family did not rule for long after he was gone, Ashoka's principles and his examples lived on through the Vedas. He is now known the world over as one of the best rulers ever to have reigned.
The Laws of Manu: Hindu castes system
Traditionally accepted as one of the supplementary arms of the Vedas, Laws of Manu or Manava Dharma Shastra is one of the standard books in the Hindu canon, and a basic text for all gurus to base their teachings on. This 'revealed scripture' comprises 2684 verses, divided into twelve chapters presenting the norms of domestic, social, and religious life in India (circa 500 BC) under the Brahmin influence, and is fundamental to the understanding of ancient Indian society.
Background to the Manava Dharma Shastra
The ancient Vedic society had a structured social order where the Brahmins were esteemed as a highest and the most revered sect and assigned the holy task of acquiring ancient knowledge and learning. The teachers of each Vedic schools composed manuals in Sanskrit, known as 'sutras', pertaining to their respective schools for the guidance of their pupils. The most common of these were the 'Grihya-sutras', dealing with domestic ceremonies, and the 'Dharma-sutras', treating of the sacred customs and laws. These extremely complicated sets of ancient rules and regulations, customs, laws and rites were gradually enlarged in scope, written aphoristically and set to musical cadence and systematically arranged to constitute the 'Dharma-shastras'. Of these the most ancient and most famous is the Laws of Manu, the Manava Dharma-shastra, a 'Dharma-sutra' belonging to the ancient Manava Vedic school.
Speculated Dates of Composition of the Laws of Manu
Sir William Jones assigned the work to the period 1200-500 B.C., but more recent developments state that the work in its extant form dates back to the first or second century A.D. or could be even older. Scholars agree that the work is a modern versified rendition of a 500 B.C. 'Dharma-sutra,' which no longer exists.
Structure & Content of the Laws of Manu
The first chapter deals with the creation of the world by the deities, the divine origin of the book itself, and the objective of studying it. Chapters two to six recounts the proper conduct of the members of the upper castes, their initiation into the Brahmin religion by sacred thread or sin-removing ceremony, the period of disciplined studentship devoted to the study of the Vedas under a Brahmin teacher, the chief duties of the householder - choice of a wife, marriage, protection of the sacred hearth-fire, hospitality, sacrifices to the gods, feasts to his departed relatives, along with the numerous restrictions - and finally, the duties of old age. The seventh chapter talks of manifold duties and responsibilities of kings. The eighth chapter deals with the modus operandi in civil and criminal proceedings and of the proper punishments to be meted out to different caste. The ninth and the tenth chapters relate the customs and laws regarding inheritance and property, divorce and the lawful occupations for each caste. Chapter eleven expresses the various kinds of penance for the misdeeds. The final chapter expounds the doctrine of karma, rebirths and salvation.
Early Indian texts like the Manusmriti and the Puranas speak of 'Varna,' which means order, nature, type or colour. It groups the society into four idealised main types as follows.
· Brahmins (scholars, teachers, fire priests)
· Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators)
· Vaishyas (merchants, agriculturists)
· Sudras (artisans, service providers)
All others who did not belong to this Hindu society, including foreigners, tribals and nomads were called Mlechhas and even those who had been excommunicated to being "Anaryas" (non-Aryans), were to be treated as contagious and untouchable.
Criticisms of the Laws of Manu
Present-day scholars have criticized the work significantly. The rigidity in the caste system and the contemptible attitude towards women are not acceptable today. The almost divine reverence shown to the Brahmin caste and the despicable attitude towards the 'Sudras' (the lowest caste) is objectionable. The Sudras were forbidden to participate in the Brahmin rituals and were subjected to severe punishments whereas the Brahmins were exempted from any kind of reprimand for crimes. Women were restrained from learning the Vedic texts or participating in important social functions.
Background to the Manava Dharma Shastra
The ancient Vedic society had a structured social order where the Brahmins were esteemed as a highest and the most revered sect and assigned the holy task of acquiring ancient knowledge and learning. The teachers of each Vedic schools composed manuals in Sanskrit, known as 'sutras', pertaining to their respective schools for the guidance of their pupils. The most common of these were the 'Grihya-sutras', dealing with domestic ceremonies, and the 'Dharma-sutras', treating of the sacred customs and laws. These extremely complicated sets of ancient rules and regulations, customs, laws and rites were gradually enlarged in scope, written aphoristically and set to musical cadence and systematically arranged to constitute the 'Dharma-shastras'. Of these the most ancient and most famous is the Laws of Manu, the Manava Dharma-shastra, a 'Dharma-sutra' belonging to the ancient Manava Vedic school.
Speculated Dates of Composition of the Laws of Manu
Sir William Jones assigned the work to the period 1200-500 B.C., but more recent developments state that the work in its extant form dates back to the first or second century A.D. or could be even older. Scholars agree that the work is a modern versified rendition of a 500 B.C. 'Dharma-sutra,' which no longer exists.
Structure & Content of the Laws of Manu
The first chapter deals with the creation of the world by the deities, the divine origin of the book itself, and the objective of studying it. Chapters two to six recounts the proper conduct of the members of the upper castes, their initiation into the Brahmin religion by sacred thread or sin-removing ceremony, the period of disciplined studentship devoted to the study of the Vedas under a Brahmin teacher, the chief duties of the householder - choice of a wife, marriage, protection of the sacred hearth-fire, hospitality, sacrifices to the gods, feasts to his departed relatives, along with the numerous restrictions - and finally, the duties of old age. The seventh chapter talks of manifold duties and responsibilities of kings. The eighth chapter deals with the modus operandi in civil and criminal proceedings and of the proper punishments to be meted out to different caste. The ninth and the tenth chapters relate the customs and laws regarding inheritance and property, divorce and the lawful occupations for each caste. Chapter eleven expresses the various kinds of penance for the misdeeds. The final chapter expounds the doctrine of karma, rebirths and salvation.
Early Indian texts like the Manusmriti and the Puranas speak of 'Varna,' which means order, nature, type or colour. It groups the society into four idealised main types as follows.
· Brahmins (scholars, teachers, fire priests)
· Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators)
· Vaishyas (merchants, agriculturists)
· Sudras (artisans, service providers)
All others who did not belong to this Hindu society, including foreigners, tribals and nomads were called Mlechhas and even those who had been excommunicated to being "Anaryas" (non-Aryans), were to be treated as contagious and untouchable.
Criticisms of the Laws of Manu
Present-day scholars have criticized the work significantly. The rigidity in the caste system and the contemptible attitude towards women are not acceptable today. The almost divine reverence shown to the Brahmin caste and the despicable attitude towards the 'Sudras' (the lowest caste) is objectionable. The Sudras were forbidden to participate in the Brahmin rituals and were subjected to severe punishments whereas the Brahmins were exempted from any kind of reprimand for crimes. Women were restrained from learning the Vedic texts or participating in important social functions.
The Gupta Empire: Golden age of Indian history
The Classical Age refers to the period when most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire (ca. A.D. 320-550). Because of the relative peace, law and order, and extensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a "golden age" that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis. The golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the Gupta Empire had vanished from the historical scene. The military exploits of the first three rulers -- Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), and Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415) -- brought all of North India under their leadership. From Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain political preeminence as much by pragmatism and judicious marriage alliances as by military strength. Despite their self-conferred titles, their overlordship was ultimately ruined by the Hunas (a branch of the White Huns emanating from Central Asia) by 500.
The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system -- sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system -- and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece.
The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in education, mathematics, art, and Sanskrit literature and drama. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system -- sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system -- and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, Charaka and Sushruta wrote about a fully evolved system, resembling those of Hippocrates and Galen in Greece.
Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire
The name echoes through the history of Europe and Asia with a drumbeat of horse-hooves, accompanied by the screams of doomed townspeople. In a span of just 25 years, Genghis Khan's horsemen conquered a larger area and greater population than the Romans did in four centuries. To the millions of people his hordes conquered, Genghis Khan was evil incarnate. In Mongolia and across Central Asia today, though, the Great Khan's name is revered.
Genghis (1162? – August 1227), born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering and/or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories. Mongol campaigns may have resulted in the deaths of 40 million people.
Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia
Genghis Khan's Early Life:
Records of the Great Khan's early life are sparse and contradictory. He was likely born in 1162, though some sources give it as 1155 or 1165. We know that the boy was given the name Temujin. His father Yesukhei was the chief of the minor Borijin clan of nomadic Mongols, who lived by hunting rather than herding. Yesukhei had kidnapped Temujin's young mother, Hoelun, as she and her first husband rode home from their wedding. She became Yesukhei's second wife and Temujin was his second son by just a few months. Mongol legend says that the baby was born with a blood-clot in his fist, a sign that he would be a great warrior.
Temujin’s youth is fraught with hardship, after his father died, poisoned by rivals. He married at 16.The couple used her dowry, a fine sable-fur coat, to make an alliance with Wang Khan of the powerful Kereyid clan. Wang Khan accepted Temujin as a foster-son. This alliance proved key, as Temujin’s childhood friend and blood brother, Jamuha, rivaled with him for power.
At the age of 27, Temujin held a kuriltai among the Mongols, who elected him khan. As khan, Temujin awarded high office not just to his relatives, but to those followers who were most loyal to him.The united Mongols soon defeated the neighboring Tatars and Jurkins, and Temujin Khan assimilated their people rather than following steppe custom of looting them and leaving.
Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temujin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temujin, gave in to his son and became uncooperative with Temüjin, refusing to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuha, who already opposed Temujin's forces; however, the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamuha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temujin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe.
Jamuha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose Temujin. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuha. After several battles, Jamuha was finally turned over to Temujin by his own men in 1206. Temujin again offered his friendship to Jamuha, asking him to return to his side. Jamuha refused the offer and asked for a noble death.
Unification of Mongolia ended in 1204, when Temujin defeated the powerful Naiman clan. Two years later, another kuriltai confirmed him as Chingis Khan ("Genghis Khan"), or Oceanic Leader of all Mongolia. Within five years, the Mongols had annexed much of Siberia and modern Chinese Xinjiang. He then defeated their tributaries, the Tangut, and in 1214 conquered the Jurcheds and their 50 million citizens. The Mongol army numbered just 100,000.
Conquest of Central Asia, the Middle East and the Caucasus:
Tribes as far away as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan heard about the Great Khan, and overthrew their Buddhist rulers in order to join his growing empire. By 1219, Genghis Khan ruled from northern China to the Afghan border, and Siberia to the border of Tibet. He sought a trade alliance with the powerful Khwarizm Empire, which controlled Central Asia from Afghanistan to the Black Sea. Sultan Muhammad II agreed, but then murdered the first Mongol trade convoy of 450 merchants, stealing their goods. Before the end of that year, the wrathful Khan had captured every Khwarizm city, adding lands from Turkey to Russia to his realm.
The Legacy of Genghis Khan:
After Genghis Khan's secret burial on the steppes of Mongolia, his sons and grandsons continued to expand the Mongol Empire. Kublai Khan defeated the Song rulers of China in 1279, and established the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan would rule all of China until 1368. Meanwhile, Chagatai pushed south from his Central Asian holdings, conquering Persia.
Within Mongolia, Genghis Khan revolutionized the social structure and reformed traditional law. His was an egalitarian society, in which the humblest slave could rise to be an army commander if he showed skill or bravery. War bounty was divided evenly among all warriors, regardless of social status. The Great Khan forbade the kidnapping of women, probably due in part to his wife's experience, but also because it led to warfare among different Mongol groups. He outlawed livestock rustling for the same reason, and established a winter-only hunting season to preserve game for the hardest times.
Contrary to his ruthless and barbaric reputation in the west, Genghis Khan promulgated several enlightened policies that would not become common practice in Europe for centuries more. He guaranteed freedom of religion, protecting the rights of Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, and Hindus alike. Genghis Khan himself worshiped the sky, but he forbade the killing of priests, monks, nuns, mullahs, and other holy people.
The Great Khan also protected enemy envoys and ambassadors, no matter what message they brought. Unlike most of the conquered peoples, the Mongols eschewed torture and mutilation of prisoners. Finally, the khan himself was bound by these laws as well as the common people.
He is remembered by some as a blood-thirsty tyrant, but Genghis Khan was a practical conqueror, more interested in goods than in killing. He rose from poverty and slavery to rule the world.
Genghis (1162? – August 1227), born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering and/or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories. Mongol campaigns may have resulted in the deaths of 40 million people.
Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia
Genghis Khan's Early Life:
Records of the Great Khan's early life are sparse and contradictory. He was likely born in 1162, though some sources give it as 1155 or 1165. We know that the boy was given the name Temujin. His father Yesukhei was the chief of the minor Borijin clan of nomadic Mongols, who lived by hunting rather than herding. Yesukhei had kidnapped Temujin's young mother, Hoelun, as she and her first husband rode home from their wedding. She became Yesukhei's second wife and Temujin was his second son by just a few months. Mongol legend says that the baby was born with a blood-clot in his fist, a sign that he would be a great warrior.
Temujin’s youth is fraught with hardship, after his father died, poisoned by rivals. He married at 16.The couple used her dowry, a fine sable-fur coat, to make an alliance with Wang Khan of the powerful Kereyid clan. Wang Khan accepted Temujin as a foster-son. This alliance proved key, as Temujin’s childhood friend and blood brother, Jamuha, rivaled with him for power.
At the age of 27, Temujin held a kuriltai among the Mongols, who elected him khan. As khan, Temujin awarded high office not just to his relatives, but to those followers who were most loyal to him.The united Mongols soon defeated the neighboring Tatars and Jurkins, and Temujin Khan assimilated their people rather than following steppe custom of looting them and leaving.
Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temujin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temujin, gave in to his son and became uncooperative with Temüjin, refusing to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuha, who already opposed Temujin's forces; however, the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamuha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temujin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamuha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe.
Jamuha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose Temujin. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuha. After several battles, Jamuha was finally turned over to Temujin by his own men in 1206. Temujin again offered his friendship to Jamuha, asking him to return to his side. Jamuha refused the offer and asked for a noble death.
Unification of Mongolia ended in 1204, when Temujin defeated the powerful Naiman clan. Two years later, another kuriltai confirmed him as Chingis Khan ("Genghis Khan"), or Oceanic Leader of all Mongolia. Within five years, the Mongols had annexed much of Siberia and modern Chinese Xinjiang. He then defeated their tributaries, the Tangut, and in 1214 conquered the Jurcheds and their 50 million citizens. The Mongol army numbered just 100,000.
Conquest of Central Asia, the Middle East and the Caucasus:
Tribes as far away as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan heard about the Great Khan, and overthrew their Buddhist rulers in order to join his growing empire. By 1219, Genghis Khan ruled from northern China to the Afghan border, and Siberia to the border of Tibet. He sought a trade alliance with the powerful Khwarizm Empire, which controlled Central Asia from Afghanistan to the Black Sea. Sultan Muhammad II agreed, but then murdered the first Mongol trade convoy of 450 merchants, stealing their goods. Before the end of that year, the wrathful Khan had captured every Khwarizm city, adding lands from Turkey to Russia to his realm.
The Legacy of Genghis Khan:
After Genghis Khan's secret burial on the steppes of Mongolia, his sons and grandsons continued to expand the Mongol Empire. Kublai Khan defeated the Song rulers of China in 1279, and established the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan would rule all of China until 1368. Meanwhile, Chagatai pushed south from his Central Asian holdings, conquering Persia.
Within Mongolia, Genghis Khan revolutionized the social structure and reformed traditional law. His was an egalitarian society, in which the humblest slave could rise to be an army commander if he showed skill or bravery. War bounty was divided evenly among all warriors, regardless of social status. The Great Khan forbade the kidnapping of women, probably due in part to his wife's experience, but also because it led to warfare among different Mongol groups. He outlawed livestock rustling for the same reason, and established a winter-only hunting season to preserve game for the hardest times.
Contrary to his ruthless and barbaric reputation in the west, Genghis Khan promulgated several enlightened policies that would not become common practice in Europe for centuries more. He guaranteed freedom of religion, protecting the rights of Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, and Hindus alike. Genghis Khan himself worshiped the sky, but he forbade the killing of priests, monks, nuns, mullahs, and other holy people.
The Great Khan also protected enemy envoys and ambassadors, no matter what message they brought. Unlike most of the conquered peoples, the Mongols eschewed torture and mutilation of prisoners. Finally, the khan himself was bound by these laws as well as the common people.
He is remembered by some as a blood-thirsty tyrant, but Genghis Khan was a practical conqueror, more interested in goods than in killing. He rose from poverty and slavery to rule the world.
Tamerlane (Timur) invades and sacks Delhi
Throughout history, few names have inspired such terror as "Tamerlane." That was not the Central Asian conqueror's actual name, though. More properly, he is known as Timur, from the Turkic word for "iron."
Amir Timur is remembered as a vicious conqueror, who razed ancient cities to the ground and put entire populations to the sword. On the other hand, he is also known as a great patron of the arts, literature, and architecture. One of his signal achievements is his capital at the beautiful city of Samarkand, in modern-day Uzbekistan. A complicated man, Timur continues to fascinate us some six centuries after his death.
Timur's Early Life:
Timur was born in 1336, near the city of Kesh (now called Shahrisabz), about 50 miles south of the oasis of Samarkand, in Transoxiana. The child's father, Taragay, was the chief of the Barlas tribe. The Barlas were of mixed Mongolian and Turkic ancestry, descended from the hordes of Genghis Khan and the earlier inhabitants of Transoxiana. Unlike their nomadic ancestors, the Barlas were settled agriculturalists and traders.
Transoxiana's Political Situation:
During Timur's youth, Transoxiana was riven by conflict between the local nomadic clans and the sedentary Chagatay Mongol khans who ruled them. The Chagatay had abandoned the mobile ways of Genghis Khan and their other ancestors, and taxed the people heavily in order to support their urban lifestyle. Naturally, this angered their citizens. In 1347, a local amir ("prince") named Kazgan seized power from the Chagatay ruler Borolday. Kazgan would rule until his assassination in 1358. After Kazgan's death, various warlords and religious leaders vied for power. Tughluk Timur, a Mongol warlord, emerged victorious in 1360.
Young Timur Gains and Loses Power:
Timur's uncle Hajji Beg led the Barlas at this time, and refused to submit to Tughluk Timur. The Hajji fled, and the new Mongol ruler decided to install the seemingly more pliable young Timur to rule in his stead. In fact, Timur was already plotting against the Mongols. He formed an alliance with the grandson of Kazgan, Amir Hussein, and married Hussein's sister Aljai Turkanaga. The Mongols soon caught on; Timur and Hussein were dethroned and forced to turn bandit in order to survive. In 1362, the legend says, Timur's following was reduced to two: Aljai, and one other. They were even imprisoned in Persia for two months.
Timur 's Conquests Begin:
Timur's bravery and tactical skill made him a successful mercenary soldier in Persia, and he soon collected a large following. In 1364, Timur and Hussein banded together again and defeated Ilyas Khoja, the son of Tughluk Timur. By 1366, the two warlords controlled Transoxiana. Timur's wife died in 1370, freeing him to attack his erstwhile ally Hussein. Hussein was besieged and killed at Balkh, and Timur declared himself the sovereign of the whole region. Over the next decade, Timur seized the rest of Central Asia, as well.
Timur's Empire Expands:
With Central Asia in hand, Timur invaded Russia in 1380. He helped the Mongol Khan Toktamysh retake control, and also defeated the Lithuanians in battle. Timur captured Herat in 1383, the opening salvo against Persia. By 1385, all of Persia was his. With invasions in 1391 and 1395, Timur fought against his former protege in Russia, Toktamysh. The Timurid army captured Moscow in 1395. While Timur was busy in the north, Persia revolted. He responded by leveling entire cities, and using the citizens' skulls to build grisly towers and pyramids. By 1396, Timur had conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Georgia.
Timur Conquers India, Syria, and Turkey:
Timur's army of 90,000 crossed the Indus River in September, 1398 and set upon India. The country had fallen to pieces after the death of Firuz Shah; Bengal, Kashmir and the Deccan each had separate rulers. The Turkic/Mongol invaders left carnage along their path; Delhi's army was destroyed in December, and the city ruined. Timur seized tons of treasure and 90 war elephants, and took them back to Samarkand. Timur looked west in 1399, retaking Azerbaijan and conquering Syria. Baghdad was destroyed in 1401, and 20,000 of its people slaughtered. In July of 1402, Timur captured Turkey and received submission from Egypt.
Timur's Final Campaign and Death:
The rulers of Europe were glad that the Ottoman Turk sultan Bayazid had been defeated, but they trembled at the idea that "Tamerlane" was at their doorstep. The rulers of Spain, France, and other powers sent congratulatory embassies to Timur, hoping to stave off an attack. Timur had bigger goals, though. He decided in 1404 that he would conquer Ming China. (The ethnic-Han Ming Dynasty had overthrown his cousins, the Yuan, in 1368.) The Timurid army set out in December, during an unusually cold winter. Men and horses died of exposure, and the 68-year-old Timur fell ill. He died in February, 1405 at Otrar, in Kazakhstan.
Timur's Legacy:
Timur started life as the son of a minor chieftain. Through sheer intelligence, military skill and force of personality, Timur was able to conquer an empire stretching from Russia to India, and from the Mediterranean Sea to Mongolia. The Timurid Empire did not long survive its founder, because he rarely bothered to put any governmental structure in place after he destroyed the existing order.
While Timur professed to be a good Muslim, he obviously felt no compunction about destroying the jewel-cities of Islam and slaughtering their inhabitants. Damascus, Khiva, Baghdad... these ancient capitals of Islamic learning never really recovered from Timur's attentions. His intent seems to have been to make his capital at Samarkand the first city of the Islamic world.
In India, his great-great-grandson Babur founded the Moghal Dynasty in 1526. The Moghuls ruled until 1857, when the British expelled them. (Shah Jahan, builder of the Taj Mahal, is thus also a descendent of Timur.)
Amir Timur is remembered as a vicious conqueror, who razed ancient cities to the ground and put entire populations to the sword. On the other hand, he is also known as a great patron of the arts, literature, and architecture. One of his signal achievements is his capital at the beautiful city of Samarkand, in modern-day Uzbekistan. A complicated man, Timur continues to fascinate us some six centuries after his death.
Timur's Early Life:
Timur was born in 1336, near the city of Kesh (now called Shahrisabz), about 50 miles south of the oasis of Samarkand, in Transoxiana. The child's father, Taragay, was the chief of the Barlas tribe. The Barlas were of mixed Mongolian and Turkic ancestry, descended from the hordes of Genghis Khan and the earlier inhabitants of Transoxiana. Unlike their nomadic ancestors, the Barlas were settled agriculturalists and traders.
Transoxiana's Political Situation:
During Timur's youth, Transoxiana was riven by conflict between the local nomadic clans and the sedentary Chagatay Mongol khans who ruled them. The Chagatay had abandoned the mobile ways of Genghis Khan and their other ancestors, and taxed the people heavily in order to support their urban lifestyle. Naturally, this angered their citizens. In 1347, a local amir ("prince") named Kazgan seized power from the Chagatay ruler Borolday. Kazgan would rule until his assassination in 1358. After Kazgan's death, various warlords and religious leaders vied for power. Tughluk Timur, a Mongol warlord, emerged victorious in 1360.
Young Timur Gains and Loses Power:
Timur's uncle Hajji Beg led the Barlas at this time, and refused to submit to Tughluk Timur. The Hajji fled, and the new Mongol ruler decided to install the seemingly more pliable young Timur to rule in his stead. In fact, Timur was already plotting against the Mongols. He formed an alliance with the grandson of Kazgan, Amir Hussein, and married Hussein's sister Aljai Turkanaga. The Mongols soon caught on; Timur and Hussein were dethroned and forced to turn bandit in order to survive. In 1362, the legend says, Timur's following was reduced to two: Aljai, and one other. They were even imprisoned in Persia for two months.
Timur 's Conquests Begin:
Timur's bravery and tactical skill made him a successful mercenary soldier in Persia, and he soon collected a large following. In 1364, Timur and Hussein banded together again and defeated Ilyas Khoja, the son of Tughluk Timur. By 1366, the two warlords controlled Transoxiana. Timur's wife died in 1370, freeing him to attack his erstwhile ally Hussein. Hussein was besieged and killed at Balkh, and Timur declared himself the sovereign of the whole region. Over the next decade, Timur seized the rest of Central Asia, as well.
Timur's Empire Expands:
With Central Asia in hand, Timur invaded Russia in 1380. He helped the Mongol Khan Toktamysh retake control, and also defeated the Lithuanians in battle. Timur captured Herat in 1383, the opening salvo against Persia. By 1385, all of Persia was his. With invasions in 1391 and 1395, Timur fought against his former protege in Russia, Toktamysh. The Timurid army captured Moscow in 1395. While Timur was busy in the north, Persia revolted. He responded by leveling entire cities, and using the citizens' skulls to build grisly towers and pyramids. By 1396, Timur had conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Georgia.
Timur Conquers India, Syria, and Turkey:
Timur's army of 90,000 crossed the Indus River in September, 1398 and set upon India. The country had fallen to pieces after the death of Firuz Shah; Bengal, Kashmir and the Deccan each had separate rulers. The Turkic/Mongol invaders left carnage along their path; Delhi's army was destroyed in December, and the city ruined. Timur seized tons of treasure and 90 war elephants, and took them back to Samarkand. Timur looked west in 1399, retaking Azerbaijan and conquering Syria. Baghdad was destroyed in 1401, and 20,000 of its people slaughtered. In July of 1402, Timur captured Turkey and received submission from Egypt.
Timur's Final Campaign and Death:
The rulers of Europe were glad that the Ottoman Turk sultan Bayazid had been defeated, but they trembled at the idea that "Tamerlane" was at their doorstep. The rulers of Spain, France, and other powers sent congratulatory embassies to Timur, hoping to stave off an attack. Timur had bigger goals, though. He decided in 1404 that he would conquer Ming China. (The ethnic-Han Ming Dynasty had overthrown his cousins, the Yuan, in 1368.) The Timurid army set out in December, during an unusually cold winter. Men and horses died of exposure, and the 68-year-old Timur fell ill. He died in February, 1405 at Otrar, in Kazakhstan.
Timur's Legacy:
Timur started life as the son of a minor chieftain. Through sheer intelligence, military skill and force of personality, Timur was able to conquer an empire stretching from Russia to India, and from the Mediterranean Sea to Mongolia. The Timurid Empire did not long survive its founder, because he rarely bothered to put any governmental structure in place after he destroyed the existing order.
While Timur professed to be a good Muslim, he obviously felt no compunction about destroying the jewel-cities of Islam and slaughtering their inhabitants. Damascus, Khiva, Baghdad... these ancient capitals of Islamic learning never really recovered from Timur's attentions. His intent seems to have been to make his capital at Samarkand the first city of the Islamic world.
In India, his great-great-grandson Babur founded the Moghal Dynasty in 1526. The Moghuls ruled until 1857, when the British expelled them. (Shah Jahan, builder of the Taj Mahal, is thus also a descendent of Timur.)
The Mughal Empire
Babur's Reign
The young prince Babur, descended from Timur on his father's side and Genghis Khan on his mother's, finished his conquest of northern India in 1526, defeating the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Shah Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. Babur was a refugee from the fierce dynastic struggles in Central Asia; his uncles and other warlords had repeatedly denied him rule over the Silk Road cities of Samarkand and Fergana, his birth-right. Babur was able to establish a base in Kabul, though, from which he turned south and conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. Babur called his dynasty "Timurid," but it is better known as the Mughal Dynasty.
Babur was never able to conquer Rajputana, home of the warlike Rajputs, but he ruled over the rest of northern India and the plain of the Ganges River. In 1530, Babur died at the age of 47. His eldest son Humayan fought off an attempt to seat his aunt's husband as emperor, and assumed the throne. Babur's body was returned to Kabul, and buried in the Bagh-e Babur.
Height of the Mughals under Akbar the Great:
Humayan was not a very strong leader. In 1540, the Pashtun ruler Sher Shah Suri defeated the Timurids, deposing Humayan. The second Timurid emperor only regained his throne with aid from Persia in 1555, a year before his death.
When Humayan died, Akbar ascended the Mughal throne at the age of 13, and became Shahanshah ("King of Kings"). His regent was Bayram Khan, his childhood guardian and an outstanding warrior/statesman. When he came of age at 18, Akbar dismissed the increasingly overbearing Bayram Khan and took direct control of the empire and army. Bayram was ordered to make the hajj to Mecca; instead, he started a rebellion against Akbar. The young emperor's forces defeated Bayram's rebels at Jalandhar, in the Punjab; rather than executing the rebel leader, Akbar mercifully allowed his former regent another chance to go to Mecca.
Akbar defeated the remnants of the Pashtuns, and brought some previously unquelled Hindu regions under Timurid control. He also gained control over Rajput through diplomacy and marriage alliances. Akbar was an enthusiastic patron of literature, poetry, architecture, science and painting. Although he was a committed Muslim, Akbar encouraged religious tolerance, and sought wisdom from holy men of all faiths. He became known as "Akbar the Great."
From an early age, Akbar was raised in a tolerant milieu. Although his family was Sunni, two of his childhood tutors were Persian Shias. As an emperor, Akbar made the Sufi concept of Sulh-e-Kuhl, or "peace to all," a founding principle of his law. Akbar displayed remarkable respect for his Hindu subjects and their faith. His first marriage in 1562 was to Jodha Bai or Harkha Bai, who was a Rajput princess from Amber. As with the families of his later Hindu wives, her father and brothers joined Akbar's court as advisers, equal in rank to his Muslim courtiers. In total, Akbar had 36 wives of various ethnic and religious backgrounds.
In 1582, King Philip II of Spain received a letter from the Mughal Emperor Akbar of India. Akbar the Great chided Philip for the anti-Protestant excesses of the Spanish Counter-reformation: "As most men are fettered by bonds of tradition, and by imitating ways followed by their fathers... everyone continues, without investigating their arguments and reasons, to follow the religion in which he was born and educated, thus excluding himself from the possibility of ascertaining the truth, which is the noblest aim of the human intellect. Therefore we associate at convenient seasons with learned men of all religions, thus deriving profit from their exquisite discourses and exalted aspirations.”
Although Philip II did not heed Akbar's call for religious tolerance, it is indicative of the Mughal emperor's attitudes towards people of other faiths. Akbar is also renowned for his patronage of the arts and sciences. Miniature painting, weaving, book-making, metallurgy, and technological innovations all flourished under his reign.
Akbar's Death:
In October of 1605, the 63-year-old Emperor Akbar suffered a serious bout of dysentery. After being sick for three weeks, he passed away at the end of that month. The emperor was buried in a beautiful mausoleum in the royal city of Agra.
The Legacy of Akbar the Great:
Akbar's legacy of religious tolerance, firm but fair central control and liberal tax policies that gave commoners a chance to prosper established a precedent in India. His love of art led to the fusion of Indian and Central Asian/Persian styles that came to symbolize the height of Mughal achievement, in forms as varied as miniature painting and grandiose architecture. Perhaps most of all, Akbar the Great showed the rulers of all nations everywhere that tolerance is not weakness, and open-mindedness is not the same thing as indecisiveness. As a result, he is honored more than four centuries after his death as one of the greatest rulers in human history.
Shah Jahan and the Taj Mahal:
Akbar's son, Jahangir, ruled the Mughal Empire in peace and prosperity from 1605 until 1627. He was succeeded by his own son, Shah Jahan. The 36-year-old Shah Jahan inherited an incredible empire in 1627, but any joy he felt would be short lived. Just four years later, his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child. The emperor went into deep mourning and was not seen in public for a year.
As an expression of his love, Shah Jahan commissioned the building of a magnificent tomb for his dear wife. Designed by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, and constructed of white marble, the Taj Mahal is considered the crowning achievement of Mughal architecture.
The Mughal Empire Weakens:
Shah Jahan's third son, Aurangzeb, seized the throne and had all of his brothers executed after a protracted succession struggle in 1658. At the time, Shah Jahan was still alive, but Aurangzeb had his sickly father confined to the Fort at Agra. Shah Jahan spent his declining years gazing out at the Taj, and died in 1666.
The ruthless Aurangzeb proved to be the last of the "Great Mughals." Throughout his reign, he expanded the empire in all directions. He also enforced a much more orthodox brand of Islam, even banning music in the empire (which made many Hindu rites impossible to perform).
A three-year-long revolt by the Mughals' long-time ally, the Pashtun, began in 1672. In the aftermath, the Mughals lost much of their authority in what is now Afghanistan, seriously weakening the empire.
The British East India Company:
Aurangzeb died in 1707, and the Mughal state began a long, slow process of crumbling from within and without. Increasing peasant revolts and sectarian violence threatened the stability of the throne, and various nobles and warlords sought to control the line of weak emperors. All around the borders, powerful new kingdoms sprang up and began to chip away at Mughal land holdings.
The British East India Company (BEI) was founded in 1600, while Akbar was still on the throne. Initially it was only interested in trade, and had to content itself with working around the fringes of the Mughal Empire. As the Mughals weakened, however, the BEI grew increasingly powerful.
The Last Days of the Mughal Empire:
In 1757, the BEI defeated the Nawab of Bengal and French company interests at the Battle of Palashi (Plassey). After this victory, the BEI took political control of much of the subcontinent, marking the start of the British Raj in India. The later Mughal rulers held on to their throne, but often simply as puppets of the British.
In 1857, half of the Indian Army rose up against the BEI in what is known as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny (First Indian War of Independence). The British home government intervened to protect its own financial stake in the company, and put down the rebellion. Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested, tried for treason, and exiled to Burma by Britain to make space for the official imposition of the British Raj in India. It was an ignominious end to what was once a glorious dynasty, which ruled the Indian subcontinent for more than 300 years.
The Mughal Legacy in India:
The Mughal Dynasty left a large and visible mark on India. Among the most striking examples of Mughal heritage are the many beautiful buildings that were constructed in the Mughal style - not just the Taj Mahal, but also the Red Fort in Delhi, the Fort of Agra, Humayan's Tomb and a number of other lovely works. The melding of Persian and Indian styles created some of the world's best-known monuments. This combination of influences can also be seen in the arts, cuisine, gardens and even in the Urdu language. Through the Mughals, Indo-Persian culture reached an apogee of refinement and beauty.
The young prince Babur, descended from Timur on his father's side and Genghis Khan on his mother's, finished his conquest of northern India in 1526, defeating the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Shah Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. Babur was a refugee from the fierce dynastic struggles in Central Asia; his uncles and other warlords had repeatedly denied him rule over the Silk Road cities of Samarkand and Fergana, his birth-right. Babur was able to establish a base in Kabul, though, from which he turned south and conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. Babur called his dynasty "Timurid," but it is better known as the Mughal Dynasty.
Babur was never able to conquer Rajputana, home of the warlike Rajputs, but he ruled over the rest of northern India and the plain of the Ganges River. In 1530, Babur died at the age of 47. His eldest son Humayan fought off an attempt to seat his aunt's husband as emperor, and assumed the throne. Babur's body was returned to Kabul, and buried in the Bagh-e Babur.
Height of the Mughals under Akbar the Great:
Humayan was not a very strong leader. In 1540, the Pashtun ruler Sher Shah Suri defeated the Timurids, deposing Humayan. The second Timurid emperor only regained his throne with aid from Persia in 1555, a year before his death.
When Humayan died, Akbar ascended the Mughal throne at the age of 13, and became Shahanshah ("King of Kings"). His regent was Bayram Khan, his childhood guardian and an outstanding warrior/statesman. When he came of age at 18, Akbar dismissed the increasingly overbearing Bayram Khan and took direct control of the empire and army. Bayram was ordered to make the hajj to Mecca; instead, he started a rebellion against Akbar. The young emperor's forces defeated Bayram's rebels at Jalandhar, in the Punjab; rather than executing the rebel leader, Akbar mercifully allowed his former regent another chance to go to Mecca.
Akbar defeated the remnants of the Pashtuns, and brought some previously unquelled Hindu regions under Timurid control. He also gained control over Rajput through diplomacy and marriage alliances. Akbar was an enthusiastic patron of literature, poetry, architecture, science and painting. Although he was a committed Muslim, Akbar encouraged religious tolerance, and sought wisdom from holy men of all faiths. He became known as "Akbar the Great."
From an early age, Akbar was raised in a tolerant milieu. Although his family was Sunni, two of his childhood tutors were Persian Shias. As an emperor, Akbar made the Sufi concept of Sulh-e-Kuhl, or "peace to all," a founding principle of his law. Akbar displayed remarkable respect for his Hindu subjects and their faith. His first marriage in 1562 was to Jodha Bai or Harkha Bai, who was a Rajput princess from Amber. As with the families of his later Hindu wives, her father and brothers joined Akbar's court as advisers, equal in rank to his Muslim courtiers. In total, Akbar had 36 wives of various ethnic and religious backgrounds.
In 1582, King Philip II of Spain received a letter from the Mughal Emperor Akbar of India. Akbar the Great chided Philip for the anti-Protestant excesses of the Spanish Counter-reformation: "As most men are fettered by bonds of tradition, and by imitating ways followed by their fathers... everyone continues, without investigating their arguments and reasons, to follow the religion in which he was born and educated, thus excluding himself from the possibility of ascertaining the truth, which is the noblest aim of the human intellect. Therefore we associate at convenient seasons with learned men of all religions, thus deriving profit from their exquisite discourses and exalted aspirations.”
Although Philip II did not heed Akbar's call for religious tolerance, it is indicative of the Mughal emperor's attitudes towards people of other faiths. Akbar is also renowned for his patronage of the arts and sciences. Miniature painting, weaving, book-making, metallurgy, and technological innovations all flourished under his reign.
Akbar's Death:
In October of 1605, the 63-year-old Emperor Akbar suffered a serious bout of dysentery. After being sick for three weeks, he passed away at the end of that month. The emperor was buried in a beautiful mausoleum in the royal city of Agra.
The Legacy of Akbar the Great:
Akbar's legacy of religious tolerance, firm but fair central control and liberal tax policies that gave commoners a chance to prosper established a precedent in India. His love of art led to the fusion of Indian and Central Asian/Persian styles that came to symbolize the height of Mughal achievement, in forms as varied as miniature painting and grandiose architecture. Perhaps most of all, Akbar the Great showed the rulers of all nations everywhere that tolerance is not weakness, and open-mindedness is not the same thing as indecisiveness. As a result, he is honored more than four centuries after his death as one of the greatest rulers in human history.
Shah Jahan and the Taj Mahal:
Akbar's son, Jahangir, ruled the Mughal Empire in peace and prosperity from 1605 until 1627. He was succeeded by his own son, Shah Jahan. The 36-year-old Shah Jahan inherited an incredible empire in 1627, but any joy he felt would be short lived. Just four years later, his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child. The emperor went into deep mourning and was not seen in public for a year.
As an expression of his love, Shah Jahan commissioned the building of a magnificent tomb for his dear wife. Designed by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, and constructed of white marble, the Taj Mahal is considered the crowning achievement of Mughal architecture.
The Mughal Empire Weakens:
Shah Jahan's third son, Aurangzeb, seized the throne and had all of his brothers executed after a protracted succession struggle in 1658. At the time, Shah Jahan was still alive, but Aurangzeb had his sickly father confined to the Fort at Agra. Shah Jahan spent his declining years gazing out at the Taj, and died in 1666.
The ruthless Aurangzeb proved to be the last of the "Great Mughals." Throughout his reign, he expanded the empire in all directions. He also enforced a much more orthodox brand of Islam, even banning music in the empire (which made many Hindu rites impossible to perform).
A three-year-long revolt by the Mughals' long-time ally, the Pashtun, began in 1672. In the aftermath, the Mughals lost much of their authority in what is now Afghanistan, seriously weakening the empire.
The British East India Company:
Aurangzeb died in 1707, and the Mughal state began a long, slow process of crumbling from within and without. Increasing peasant revolts and sectarian violence threatened the stability of the throne, and various nobles and warlords sought to control the line of weak emperors. All around the borders, powerful new kingdoms sprang up and began to chip away at Mughal land holdings.
The British East India Company (BEI) was founded in 1600, while Akbar was still on the throne. Initially it was only interested in trade, and had to content itself with working around the fringes of the Mughal Empire. As the Mughals weakened, however, the BEI grew increasingly powerful.
The Last Days of the Mughal Empire:
In 1757, the BEI defeated the Nawab of Bengal and French company interests at the Battle of Palashi (Plassey). After this victory, the BEI took political control of much of the subcontinent, marking the start of the British Raj in India. The later Mughal rulers held on to their throne, but often simply as puppets of the British.
In 1857, half of the Indian Army rose up against the BEI in what is known as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny (First Indian War of Independence). The British home government intervened to protect its own financial stake in the company, and put down the rebellion. Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested, tried for treason, and exiled to Burma by Britain to make space for the official imposition of the British Raj in India. It was an ignominious end to what was once a glorious dynasty, which ruled the Indian subcontinent for more than 300 years.
The Mughal Legacy in India:
The Mughal Dynasty left a large and visible mark on India. Among the most striking examples of Mughal heritage are the many beautiful buildings that were constructed in the Mughal style - not just the Taj Mahal, but also the Red Fort in Delhi, the Fort of Agra, Humayan's Tomb and a number of other lovely works. The melding of Persian and Indian styles created some of the world's best-known monuments. This combination of influences can also be seen in the arts, cuisine, gardens and even in the Urdu language. Through the Mughals, Indo-Persian culture reached an apogee of refinement and beauty.
British Raj in India: 1799-1943
From the moment the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope on Africa's southern tip in 1488, opening sea lanes to the Far East, the European powers strove to acquire Asian trading posts of their own. For centuries, the Viennese had controlled the European branch of the Silk Road, reaping enormous profits on silk, spices, fine china and precious metals. The Viennese monopoly ended with the establishment of the sea-route. At first, the European powers in Asia were solely interested in trade, but over time, the acquisition of territory grew in importance. Among the nations looking for a piece of the action was Britain.
The Battle of Plassey (Palashi):
Britain had been trading in India since about 1600, but it did not begin to seize large sections of land until 1757, after the Battle of Plassey. This battle pitted 3,000 soldiers of the British East India Company against the 5,000-strong army of the young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah, and his French East India Company allies. Fighting began on the morning of June 23, 1757. Heavy rain spoiled the Nawab's cannon powder (the British covered theirs), leading to his defeat. The Nawab lost at least 500 troops, to Britain's 22. Britain took about $5 million from the Bengali treasury, which financed further expansion.
India under the East India Company:
The East India Company traded in cotton, silk, tea and opium. Following the Battle of Plassey, it functioned as the military authority in growing sections of India, as well. By 1770, heavy Company taxation and other policies had left millions of Bengalis impoverished. While British soldiers and traders made their fortunes, the Indians starved. Between 1770 and 1773, about 10 million people died of famine in Bengal - 1/3 of the population. At this time, Indians also were barred from high office in their own land. The British considered them inherently corrupt and untrustworthy.
The Indian "Mutiny" of 1857:
Many Indians were distressed by the rapid cultural changes imposed by the British.On May 10, 1857, the revolt started, when mainly Bengali Muslim troops marched to Delhi and pledged their support to the Mughal emperor. Both sides moved slowly, unsure of public reaction. After a year-long struggle, the rebels surrendered on June 20, 1858.
Control of India Shifts to the India Office:
Following the Rebellion of 1857-58, the British government abolished both the Mughal Dynasty, which had ruled India more or less for 300 years, and the East India Company. The Emperor, Bahadur Shah, was convicted of sedition and exiled to Burma. Control of India was given to a British Governor-General, who reported back to the Secretary of State for India and the British Parliament. It should be noted that the British Raj included only about 2/3 of modern India, with the other portions under the control of local princes. However, Britain exerted a lot of pressure on these princes, effectively controlling all of India.
"Autocratic Paternalism":
Queen Victoria promised that the British government would work to better its Indian subjects. To the British, this meant educating them in British modes of thought, and stamping out cultural practices such as sati. The British also practiced "divide and rule" policies, pitting Hindu and Muslim Indians against one another.
British India in World War I:
During World War I, Britain declared war on German on India's behalf. More than 1.3 million Indian soldiers and laborers were serving in the British Indian Army by the time of the Armistice. 43,000 Indian and Gurkha soldiers died.
Although most of India rallied to the British flag, Bengal and Punjab were restive. Many Indians were eager for independence; they were led by a political new-comer called Mohandas Gandhi. In April, 1919, more than 5,000 unarmed protestors gathered at Amritsar, in the Punjab. British troops fired on the crowd, killing an estimated 1,500 men, women and children. The official death toll was 379.
British India in World War II:
When World War II broke out, once again, India contributed hugely to the British war effort. In addition to troops, the princely states donated substantial amounts of cash. By the end of the war, India had an incredible 2.5 million-man volunteer army. 87,000 Indian soldiers had died in combat. The Indian independence movement was very strong by this time, though, and British rule was widely resented. Some 30,000 Indian POWs were recruited by the Germans and Japanese to fight against the Allies, in exchange for their freedom. Most, however, remained loyal.
The Struggle for Indian Independence, and the Aftermath:
Calls for Self-rule
Even as World War II raged, Gandhi and other members of the Indian National Congress (INC) demonstrated against British rule of India.
The earlier Government of India Act (1935) had provided for the establishment of provincial legislatures across the colony. The Act also created an umbrella federal government for the provinces and princely states, and granted the vote to about 10% of India's male population. These moves toward limited self-governance only made India impatient for true self-rule.
In 1942, Britain sent the Cripps mission to offer future dominion status in return for help recruiting more soldiers. Cripps may have made a secret agreement with the Muslim League, allowing Muslims to opt out of a future Indian state.
In any case, Gandhi and the INC did not trust the British envoy, and demanded immediate independence in return for their cooperation. When the talks broke down, the INC launched the "Quit India" movement, calling for the immediate withdrawal of Britons from India. In response, the British arrested the INC's leadership. Mass demonstrations burst out across the country, but were crushed by the British Army. The offer of independence had been made, however. Britain may not have realized it, but it was now just a question of when the British Raj would end.
Hindu/Muslim Riots and Partition
On August 17, 1946, violent fighting broke out between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. The trouble quickly spread across India. Meanwhile, cash-strapped Britain announced its decision to withdraw from India by June of 1948. Sectarian violence flared again as independence approached. In June of 1947, representatives of the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs agreed to divide India along sectarian lines. Hindu and Sikh areas stayed in India, while predominantly Muslim areas in the north became the nation of Pakistan. Millions of refugees flooded across the border in each direction. Between 250,000 and 500,000 people were killed in sectarian violence during the Partition. Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947. India followed the next day.
The Battle of Plassey (Palashi):
Britain had been trading in India since about 1600, but it did not begin to seize large sections of land until 1757, after the Battle of Plassey. This battle pitted 3,000 soldiers of the British East India Company against the 5,000-strong army of the young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah, and his French East India Company allies. Fighting began on the morning of June 23, 1757. Heavy rain spoiled the Nawab's cannon powder (the British covered theirs), leading to his defeat. The Nawab lost at least 500 troops, to Britain's 22. Britain took about $5 million from the Bengali treasury, which financed further expansion.
India under the East India Company:
The East India Company traded in cotton, silk, tea and opium. Following the Battle of Plassey, it functioned as the military authority in growing sections of India, as well. By 1770, heavy Company taxation and other policies had left millions of Bengalis impoverished. While British soldiers and traders made their fortunes, the Indians starved. Between 1770 and 1773, about 10 million people died of famine in Bengal - 1/3 of the population. At this time, Indians also were barred from high office in their own land. The British considered them inherently corrupt and untrustworthy.
The Indian "Mutiny" of 1857:
Many Indians were distressed by the rapid cultural changes imposed by the British.On May 10, 1857, the revolt started, when mainly Bengali Muslim troops marched to Delhi and pledged their support to the Mughal emperor. Both sides moved slowly, unsure of public reaction. After a year-long struggle, the rebels surrendered on June 20, 1858.
Control of India Shifts to the India Office:
Following the Rebellion of 1857-58, the British government abolished both the Mughal Dynasty, which had ruled India more or less for 300 years, and the East India Company. The Emperor, Bahadur Shah, was convicted of sedition and exiled to Burma. Control of India was given to a British Governor-General, who reported back to the Secretary of State for India and the British Parliament. It should be noted that the British Raj included only about 2/3 of modern India, with the other portions under the control of local princes. However, Britain exerted a lot of pressure on these princes, effectively controlling all of India.
"Autocratic Paternalism":
Queen Victoria promised that the British government would work to better its Indian subjects. To the British, this meant educating them in British modes of thought, and stamping out cultural practices such as sati. The British also practiced "divide and rule" policies, pitting Hindu and Muslim Indians against one another.
British India in World War I:
During World War I, Britain declared war on German on India's behalf. More than 1.3 million Indian soldiers and laborers were serving in the British Indian Army by the time of the Armistice. 43,000 Indian and Gurkha soldiers died.
Although most of India rallied to the British flag, Bengal and Punjab were restive. Many Indians were eager for independence; they were led by a political new-comer called Mohandas Gandhi. In April, 1919, more than 5,000 unarmed protestors gathered at Amritsar, in the Punjab. British troops fired on the crowd, killing an estimated 1,500 men, women and children. The official death toll was 379.
British India in World War II:
When World War II broke out, once again, India contributed hugely to the British war effort. In addition to troops, the princely states donated substantial amounts of cash. By the end of the war, India had an incredible 2.5 million-man volunteer army. 87,000 Indian soldiers had died in combat. The Indian independence movement was very strong by this time, though, and British rule was widely resented. Some 30,000 Indian POWs were recruited by the Germans and Japanese to fight against the Allies, in exchange for their freedom. Most, however, remained loyal.
The Struggle for Indian Independence, and the Aftermath:
Calls for Self-rule
Even as World War II raged, Gandhi and other members of the Indian National Congress (INC) demonstrated against British rule of India.
The earlier Government of India Act (1935) had provided for the establishment of provincial legislatures across the colony. The Act also created an umbrella federal government for the provinces and princely states, and granted the vote to about 10% of India's male population. These moves toward limited self-governance only made India impatient for true self-rule.
In 1942, Britain sent the Cripps mission to offer future dominion status in return for help recruiting more soldiers. Cripps may have made a secret agreement with the Muslim League, allowing Muslims to opt out of a future Indian state.
In any case, Gandhi and the INC did not trust the British envoy, and demanded immediate independence in return for their cooperation. When the talks broke down, the INC launched the "Quit India" movement, calling for the immediate withdrawal of Britons from India. In response, the British arrested the INC's leadership. Mass demonstrations burst out across the country, but were crushed by the British Army. The offer of independence had been made, however. Britain may not have realized it, but it was now just a question of when the British Raj would end.
Hindu/Muslim Riots and Partition
On August 17, 1946, violent fighting broke out between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. The trouble quickly spread across India. Meanwhile, cash-strapped Britain announced its decision to withdraw from India by June of 1948. Sectarian violence flared again as independence approached. In June of 1947, representatives of the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs agreed to divide India along sectarian lines. Hindu and Sikh areas stayed in India, while predominantly Muslim areas in the north became the nation of Pakistan. Millions of refugees flooded across the border in each direction. Between 250,000 and 500,000 people were killed in sectarian violence during the Partition. Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947. India followed the next day.
Sati
1859 - British Outlaw Practice of Sati
Sati: The ancient Indian practice of burning a widow on her husband's funeral pyre, or burying her alive in his grave. The word "sati" comes from the feminine present participle of the Sanskrit word asti, meaning "she is true / pure."
The ritual has prehistoric roots, and many parallels from other cultures are known. Compare for example the ship burial of the Rus', where a female slave is burned with her master. Aristobulus of Cassandreia, a Greek historian who traveled to India with the expedition of Alexander the Great, recorded the practice of sati at the city of Taxila. Voluntary death at funerals has been described in northern India before the Gupta empire. The original practices were called anumarana, and were uncommon. Anumarana was not comparable to later understandings of sati, since the practices were not restricted to widows — rather, anyone, male or female, with personal loyalty to the deceased could commit suicide at a loved one's funeral. These included the deceased's relatives, servants, followers, or friends.
According to tradition, sati was supposed to be voluntary, and often it was seen as the proper final act of a marriage. However, many accounts exist of women who were forced to go through with the rite. They may have been drugged, or tied up before being placed on the pyre or into the grave. In addition, strong societal pressure was exerted on women to accept sati, particularly if they had no surviving children to support them. A widow had no social standing in traditional society, and was considered a drag on resources.
During the Mughal rule, sati became more widely practised, especially in the north. Humayun issued a royal fiat against sati, which he later withdrew. Akbar required that permission be granted by his officials, and these officials were instructed to delay the woman's decision for as long as possible. The reasoning was that she was less likely to choose to die once the emotions of the moment had passed. In the reign of Shah Jahan, widows with children were not allowed to burn under any circumstances. Later on in the Mughal period, pensions, gifts and rehabilitative help were offered to the potential sati to wean her away from committing the act. The strongest attempts under the Mughals to control it were made by Aurangzeb. Despite such attempts however, the practice continued, especially during periods of war and upheaval.
During the colonial period, Britain tried to stamp out the practice of sati. It still occured from time to time, however, particularly in rural areas of Rajastan.
Sati: The ancient Indian practice of burning a widow on her husband's funeral pyre, or burying her alive in his grave. The word "sati" comes from the feminine present participle of the Sanskrit word asti, meaning "she is true / pure."
The ritual has prehistoric roots, and many parallels from other cultures are known. Compare for example the ship burial of the Rus', where a female slave is burned with her master. Aristobulus of Cassandreia, a Greek historian who traveled to India with the expedition of Alexander the Great, recorded the practice of sati at the city of Taxila. Voluntary death at funerals has been described in northern India before the Gupta empire. The original practices were called anumarana, and were uncommon. Anumarana was not comparable to later understandings of sati, since the practices were not restricted to widows — rather, anyone, male or female, with personal loyalty to the deceased could commit suicide at a loved one's funeral. These included the deceased's relatives, servants, followers, or friends.
According to tradition, sati was supposed to be voluntary, and often it was seen as the proper final act of a marriage. However, many accounts exist of women who were forced to go through with the rite. They may have been drugged, or tied up before being placed on the pyre or into the grave. In addition, strong societal pressure was exerted on women to accept sati, particularly if they had no surviving children to support them. A widow had no social standing in traditional society, and was considered a drag on resources.
During the Mughal rule, sati became more widely practised, especially in the north. Humayun issued a royal fiat against sati, which he later withdrew. Akbar required that permission be granted by his officials, and these officials were instructed to delay the woman's decision for as long as possible. The reasoning was that she was less likely to choose to die once the emotions of the moment had passed. In the reign of Shah Jahan, widows with children were not allowed to burn under any circumstances. Later on in the Mughal period, pensions, gifts and rehabilitative help were offered to the potential sati to wean her away from committing the act. The strongest attempts under the Mughals to control it were made by Aurangzeb. Despite such attempts however, the practice continued, especially during periods of war and upheaval.
During the colonial period, Britain tried to stamp out the practice of sati. It still occured from time to time, however, particularly in rural areas of Rajastan.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, The Mahatma ("great soul")
His image is one of the most recognizable in history: the thin, bald, frail-looking man wearing round glasses and a simple white wrap. His inspirational message of non-violent protest helped to lead India to independence from the British Raj. Gandhi lived a life of simplicity and moral clarity, and his example has inspired protestors and campaigners for human rights and democracy the world over.
Gandhi's Early Life:
Gandhi's parents were Karmachand Gandhi, the dewan (governor) of the western Indian region of Porbandar, and his fourth wife Putlibai. Mohandas was born in 1869, the youngest of Putlibai's children.
Gandhi's father was a competent administrator, adept at mediating between British officials and local subjects. His mother was an extremely devout adherent of Vaishnavism, the worship of Vishnu, and devoted herself to fasting and prayer. She taught Mohandas values such as tolerance and ahimsa, or noninjury to living beings.
Marriage and University:
In 1883, the Gandhis arranged a marriage between 13-year-old Mohandas and a 14-year-old girl named Kasturba Makhanji. The young couple's first child died in 1885, but they had four surviving sons by 1900. Mohandas finished middle and high school after the wedding. He wanted to be a doctor, but his parents pushed him into the law.
Studies in London:
In September of 1888, Gandhi moved to England, and began to train as a barrister at University College London. For the first time in his life, the young man applied himself to his studies, working hard on his English and Latin language skills. He also developed a new interest in religion, reading widely on different world faiths. He returned to India in 1891 after earning his degree, but could not make a living there as a barrister.
Gandhi Goes to South Africa:
Disappointed by the lack of opportunity in India, Gandhi accepted an offer for a year-long contract with an Indian law firm in Natal, South Africa in 1893. There, the 24-year-old lawyer experienced first-hand terrible racial discrimination. He was kicked off a train for trying to ride in the first-class carriage (for which he had a ticket), was beaten up for refusing to give his seat on a stagecoach to a European, and had to go to court where he was ordered to remove his turban. Gandhi refused, and thus began a lifetime of resistance work and protest.
Gandhi the Organizer:
Just as Gandhi was about to leave South Africa, a bill came up in the Natal Legislature to deny Indians the right to vote. He decided to stay and fight against the legislation; despite his petitions, however, it passed. Nonetheless, Gandhi's opposition campaign drew public attention to the Indians' plight in British South Africa. He founded the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and served as Secretary. Gandhi's organization and petitions to the South African government attracted attention in London and India.
Boer War and the Registration Act:
Gandhi urged Indians to support the British government at the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899, and organized an ambulance corps of 1,100 Indian volunteers. He hoped that this proof of loyalty would result in better treatment of Indian South Africans. Although the British won the war, and established peace among white South Africans, still treatment of Indians worsened. Gandhi and his followers were beaten and jailed for opposing the 1906 registration act, under which Indian citizens had to register and carry ID cards at all times.In 1914, 21 years after he arrived on a one-year contract, Gandhi left South Africa.
Return to India:
Gandhi returned to India battle-hardened and vividly aware of British injustices. For the first three years, though, he stayed outside of the political center in India. He even recruited Indian soldiers for the British Army once more, this time to fight in WWI. In 1919, however, he announced a non-violent opposition protest (satyagraha) against the British Raj's anti-sedition Rowlatt Act. Under Rowlatt, the colonial Indian government could arrest suspects without a warrant and jail them without a trial. The Act also curtailed press freedom. Strikes and protests spread across India, growing throughout the spring.
The Amritsar Massacre and the Salt March:
On April 13, 1919, British troops under Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer opened fire on an unarmed crowd in the courtyard of Jallianwala Bagh. Between 379 (the British count) and 1,499 (the Indian count) of the 5,000 men, women and children present died. The Amritsar Massacre turned the Indian independence movement into a national cause, and brought Gandhi to national attention. Gandhi's independence work culminated in the 1930 Salt March, when he led his followers to the sea to illegally make salt, a protest against British salt taxes. Through a 241 mile walk in 23 days Mahatma Gandhi's Salt March not only caught worldwide attention for his cause, but also became a permanent example of civil disobedience. Gandhi embarked on his journey to the sea to pick up salt, which would break the British law in India. The British had placed high taxes on India's salt and placed a strict law forbidding the Indians to buy or make salt. Gandhi successfully completed his march to the sea with his 78 followers. When Gandhi reached Dandi he picked up a small chunk of salt. Soon after, thousands followed Gandhi's example and picked up salt off the coast. A month after Gandhi completed his march he was arrested for breaking the law and soon after India's prisons were clogged with others practicing this simple act of civil disobedience. Although Gandhi's act produced no immediate effects on British rule or a repeal on the heavy salt taxes, news of his act of civil disobedience spread throughout theworld. Reporters and photographersfrom all over the world sought tocover this piece of history.Hundreds of thousands of people protested until Gandhi was released from jail.
World War II and the "Quit India" Movement:
When World War II broke out in 1939, Britain turned to its colonies, including India, for soldiers. Gandhi was conflicted; he felt very concerned about the rise of fascism around the world, but he also had become a committed pacifist. No doubt, he remembered the lessons of the Boer War and World War I - loyalty to the colonial government during war did not result in better treatment afterwards.
In March of 1942, British cabinet minister Sir Stafford Cripps offered the Indians a form of autonomy within the British Empire in exchange for military support. The Cripps offer included a plan to separate the Hindu and Muslim sections of India, which Gandhi found unacceptable. The Indian independence movement rejected the plan.
That summer, Gandhi issued a call for Britain to "Quit India" immediately. The colonial government reacted by arresting all of the Congress leadership, including Gandhi and his wife Kasturba. As anti-colonial protests grew, the Raj government arrested and jailed hundreds of thousands of Indians. Tragically, Kasturba died in February 1944 after 18 months in prison. Gandhi became gravely ill with malaria, so the British released him from prison, since the political repercussions could have been explosive if he had also died while imprisoned.
Indian Independence and Partition
In 1944, Britain pledged to grant independence to India once the war was over. Gandhi called for the Congress to reject the proposal once more, since it proposed a division of India among Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh states. The Hindu states would become one nation, while the Muslim and Sikh states would be another. When sectarian violence rocked India's cities in 1946, leaving more than 5,000 dead, Congress members convinced Gandhi that the only options were partition or civil war. He reluctantly agreed, and then went on a hunger strike that single-handedly stopped the violence in Delhi and Calcutta. On August 14, 1947, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was founded. The Republic of India declared its independence the following day.
Gandhi's Assassination
On January 30, 1948, Mohandas Gandhi was shot dead by a young Hindu radical named Nathuram Godse. The assassin blamed Gandhi for weakening India by insisting on paying reparations to Pakistan. Despite Gandhi's rejection of violence and revenge during his lifetime, Godse and his accomplice were both executed in 1949.
Gandhi's Early Life:
Gandhi's parents were Karmachand Gandhi, the dewan (governor) of the western Indian region of Porbandar, and his fourth wife Putlibai. Mohandas was born in 1869, the youngest of Putlibai's children.
Gandhi's father was a competent administrator, adept at mediating between British officials and local subjects. His mother was an extremely devout adherent of Vaishnavism, the worship of Vishnu, and devoted herself to fasting and prayer. She taught Mohandas values such as tolerance and ahimsa, or noninjury to living beings.
Marriage and University:
In 1883, the Gandhis arranged a marriage between 13-year-old Mohandas and a 14-year-old girl named Kasturba Makhanji. The young couple's first child died in 1885, but they had four surviving sons by 1900. Mohandas finished middle and high school after the wedding. He wanted to be a doctor, but his parents pushed him into the law.
Studies in London:
In September of 1888, Gandhi moved to England, and began to train as a barrister at University College London. For the first time in his life, the young man applied himself to his studies, working hard on his English and Latin language skills. He also developed a new interest in religion, reading widely on different world faiths. He returned to India in 1891 after earning his degree, but could not make a living there as a barrister.
Gandhi Goes to South Africa:
Disappointed by the lack of opportunity in India, Gandhi accepted an offer for a year-long contract with an Indian law firm in Natal, South Africa in 1893. There, the 24-year-old lawyer experienced first-hand terrible racial discrimination. He was kicked off a train for trying to ride in the first-class carriage (for which he had a ticket), was beaten up for refusing to give his seat on a stagecoach to a European, and had to go to court where he was ordered to remove his turban. Gandhi refused, and thus began a lifetime of resistance work and protest.
Gandhi the Organizer:
Just as Gandhi was about to leave South Africa, a bill came up in the Natal Legislature to deny Indians the right to vote. He decided to stay and fight against the legislation; despite his petitions, however, it passed. Nonetheless, Gandhi's opposition campaign drew public attention to the Indians' plight in British South Africa. He founded the Natal Indian Congress in 1894, and served as Secretary. Gandhi's organization and petitions to the South African government attracted attention in London and India.
Boer War and the Registration Act:
Gandhi urged Indians to support the British government at the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899, and organized an ambulance corps of 1,100 Indian volunteers. He hoped that this proof of loyalty would result in better treatment of Indian South Africans. Although the British won the war, and established peace among white South Africans, still treatment of Indians worsened. Gandhi and his followers were beaten and jailed for opposing the 1906 registration act, under which Indian citizens had to register and carry ID cards at all times.In 1914, 21 years after he arrived on a one-year contract, Gandhi left South Africa.
Return to India:
Gandhi returned to India battle-hardened and vividly aware of British injustices. For the first three years, though, he stayed outside of the political center in India. He even recruited Indian soldiers for the British Army once more, this time to fight in WWI. In 1919, however, he announced a non-violent opposition protest (satyagraha) against the British Raj's anti-sedition Rowlatt Act. Under Rowlatt, the colonial Indian government could arrest suspects without a warrant and jail them without a trial. The Act also curtailed press freedom. Strikes and protests spread across India, growing throughout the spring.
The Amritsar Massacre and the Salt March:
On April 13, 1919, British troops under Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer opened fire on an unarmed crowd in the courtyard of Jallianwala Bagh. Between 379 (the British count) and 1,499 (the Indian count) of the 5,000 men, women and children present died. The Amritsar Massacre turned the Indian independence movement into a national cause, and brought Gandhi to national attention. Gandhi's independence work culminated in the 1930 Salt March, when he led his followers to the sea to illegally make salt, a protest against British salt taxes. Through a 241 mile walk in 23 days Mahatma Gandhi's Salt March not only caught worldwide attention for his cause, but also became a permanent example of civil disobedience. Gandhi embarked on his journey to the sea to pick up salt, which would break the British law in India. The British had placed high taxes on India's salt and placed a strict law forbidding the Indians to buy or make salt. Gandhi successfully completed his march to the sea with his 78 followers. When Gandhi reached Dandi he picked up a small chunk of salt. Soon after, thousands followed Gandhi's example and picked up salt off the coast. A month after Gandhi completed his march he was arrested for breaking the law and soon after India's prisons were clogged with others practicing this simple act of civil disobedience. Although Gandhi's act produced no immediate effects on British rule or a repeal on the heavy salt taxes, news of his act of civil disobedience spread throughout theworld. Reporters and photographersfrom all over the world sought tocover this piece of history.Hundreds of thousands of people protested until Gandhi was released from jail.
World War II and the "Quit India" Movement:
When World War II broke out in 1939, Britain turned to its colonies, including India, for soldiers. Gandhi was conflicted; he felt very concerned about the rise of fascism around the world, but he also had become a committed pacifist. No doubt, he remembered the lessons of the Boer War and World War I - loyalty to the colonial government during war did not result in better treatment afterwards.
In March of 1942, British cabinet minister Sir Stafford Cripps offered the Indians a form of autonomy within the British Empire in exchange for military support. The Cripps offer included a plan to separate the Hindu and Muslim sections of India, which Gandhi found unacceptable. The Indian independence movement rejected the plan.
That summer, Gandhi issued a call for Britain to "Quit India" immediately. The colonial government reacted by arresting all of the Congress leadership, including Gandhi and his wife Kasturba. As anti-colonial protests grew, the Raj government arrested and jailed hundreds of thousands of Indians. Tragically, Kasturba died in February 1944 after 18 months in prison. Gandhi became gravely ill with malaria, so the British released him from prison, since the political repercussions could have been explosive if he had also died while imprisoned.
Indian Independence and Partition
In 1944, Britain pledged to grant independence to India once the war was over. Gandhi called for the Congress to reject the proposal once more, since it proposed a division of India among Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh states. The Hindu states would become one nation, while the Muslim and Sikh states would be another. When sectarian violence rocked India's cities in 1946, leaving more than 5,000 dead, Congress members convinced Gandhi that the only options were partition or civil war. He reluctantly agreed, and then went on a hunger strike that single-handedly stopped the violence in Delhi and Calcutta. On August 14, 1947, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was founded. The Republic of India declared its independence the following day.
Gandhi's Assassination
On January 30, 1948, Mohandas Gandhi was shot dead by a young Hindu radical named Nathuram Godse. The assassin blamed Gandhi for weakening India by insisting on paying reparations to Pakistan. Despite Gandhi's rejection of violence and revenge during his lifetime, Godse and his accomplice were both executed in 1949.
Partition of India and Independence: 1947-1977
The Partition of India was the process of dividing the subcontinent along sectarian lines, which took place in 1947 as India gained its independence from the British Raj. The northern, predominantly Muslim sections of India became the nation of Pakistan, while the southern and majority Hindu section became the Republic of India. In the wealthy and fertile region of the Punjab, the problem was extreme with a nearly-even mixture of Hindus and Muslims. Neither side wanted to relinquish this valuable land, and sectarian hatred ran high. The border was drawn right down the middle of the province, between Lahore and Amritsar. On both sides, people scrambled to get onto the "right" side of the border, or were driven from their homes by their neighbors. At least 10 million people fled north or south, depending upon their faith, and more than 500,000 were killed in the mêlée. Trains full of refugees were set upon by militants from both sides, and the passengers massacred. Jaisalmer being the last major city before the border, along this section of Rajasthan, many of its inhabitants, or their parents and families, have witnessed these troubles times.
Discover India
India is a wonderful country to discover. Each and every state and region has different traditions, languages and arts. The wide geographic range of India allows you to discover extremely various sceneries and ecosystems, from the Himalayan range to the beaches, from the Thar Desert to the tropical jungle. I have travelled extensively in South Asia: visited Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Dharamshala, Nepal, Rajasthan, Sanchi, Kajuraho, Delhi, Assam, Meghalaya, Ellora, Ajanta, Aurangabad, Varanasi, Goa, Kerala, and spent 15 years in Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Mahabalipuram, Auroville, Pondichéri, Kanchipuram, Vellore, etc). And I can tell you it was worth discovering, every minute of every day... So if you want tips and advice, ask me!